Taking offense: An emotion reconsidered

A stranger in the pub bumps into you spilling your drink and then doesn't apologize, or someone pushes past to grab a seat on train. colleague makes dismissive remark about work front of boss. man catcalls woman street, wears T-shirt declaring, “keep calm, watch lesbians.” One reaction affronts like these is take offense. Philosophers have said great deal causing offense, especially whether we should punish prevent it, but very little what let alone should.11 To illustrate, see, for example, Joel Feinberg's influential discussion legal philosophy. Feinberg, The Moral Limits Criminal Law: Volume 2: Offence Others (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). For more recent discussions, George Sher, “Debate: Taking Offense,” Journal Political Philosophy 28, no. 3 (September 2020): 332–42; Jeremy Waldron, Offense: Reply,” 343–52. See also philosophical slurs, Luvell Anderson Ernie Lepore, “Slurring Words,” Noûs 47, 1 (March 2013): 25–48; Mihaela Popa-Wyatt L. Wyatt, “Slurs, roles power,” Philosophical Studies 17 (2018): 2879–2906. Hitherto, focus moral philosophy has tended be offender, not offended. Meanwhile, taking offense captured popular attention, with multitude books opinion pieces condemning “oversensitive millennials” “generation snowflake.” 22 Bradley Campbell Jason Manning, “Microaggression Cultures,” Comparative Sociology 13, 6 (2014): 692–726; “The New Millennial ‘Morality’: Highly Sensitive Easily Offended,” Time, November 17, 2015, https://time.com/4115439/student-protests-microaggressions/; Claire Fox, I Find That Offensive! (London: Biteback Publishing, 2016); Greg Lukianoff Jonathan Haidt, Coddling American Mind Penguin Books, 2018). There, however, being offended tends characterized, will argue, mistakenly, as kind emotional upset, borne oversensitivity fragility, retreat victimhood.33 As illustrations this victimhood emotionally upset interpretation offense-taking, see most notably Cultures”; ‘Morality.’” they describe, “A culture one characterized by concern status sensitivity slight combined heavy reliance third parties.” 715. In places where find such culture, suggest, “personal discomfort looms large” policymaking. 716. discussing offense-taking university campuses, declare: “the current movement largely well-being… it presumes an extraordinary fragility collegiate psyche, therefore elevates goal protecting students from psychological harm.” Mind. Within philosophy, Sher's characterization hurt feelings. Offense.” thing that goes wrong contemporary debates anger marginalized groups misread “mere” Another—and article's target—is mischaracterized. article, offer analysis doing so like, which nuanced positive appraisal emotion becomes possible compared its reputation. First, survey shortfalls limited philosophers, before proposing alternative analysis. Second, distinguish nearby emotions, anger, disgust, pride. Third, examine implications only how conceptualize regard those who it. On my account, smaller-scale, everyday than making claims threats society suppose, ripe reassessment. While sometimes appears excessive, likely cases: namely, requiring symbolic withdrawal proxy forms estrangement. Even there, appearance excess may illusory, grander gestures appropriate given distance between offending parties. Furthermore, resist one's standing, rather merely reflection Concluding, sketch defense resistance valuable response injustice. received relatively attention philosophers. When analyzing philosophers language consider pattern our taking, varies when differently situated individuals use same slur; slur mentioned used; presented negation slurring sentence.44 See, power”; Words.” However, their interest conceptualizing resulting notion thin. representative account defined “achieved effect audience members” slur, “determined part beliefs values.”55 2881; adapted Christopher Hom, Puzzle About Pejoratives,” 159 (2012): 397. Such depictions tell us Likely offered Feinberg. he terms strict narrow sense, any disliked state attribute another's “wrongful conduct” resent them.66 Law, 2. This definition incorporates wide range states including senses, shame, annoyance.77 Ibid., 1–2, 10–14. Feinberg offers “profound offense” mostly mix outrage disgust at sanctity violations; again, then, disunified diverse. 50–96. breadth central examples: series untoward experiences might while traveling bus, masturbating next you; eating disgusting picnic; running fingernails down slate tablet.88 plausible reading his “offense” taken nuisances person cannot easily ignore.99 Robert Simpson characterizes “all subharmful mental agent's frustratingly ‘captured.’” Simpson, “Regulating Offence, Nurturing Offence,” Politics, & Economics 237. depiction discrete emotion, nor does describe offended; rather, counts. Given aim, ought surprising; examines conduct regulate beyond causes harm. Yet, there distinct way feels annoyed disgusted. seek capture below, familiar both ordinary experience navigating social relations discussions “culture offence.” Continuing fail distinct, some conflate anger.1010 Rini's “How Take Offence,”which, despite title, discusses anger. Regina Rini, Offence: Responding Microaggression,” Association 4, 332–51. Martha Nussbaum's status-focused appear if stripped desiring payback. Nussbaum, Anger Forgiveness: Resentment, Generosity, Justice (Princeton, NJ: Princeton 2016): 17–21. task article show would misleading; indeed, important respects closer contempt Another conflation found discussion, often implicitly, form harm, injury feeling damaging self-esteem.1111 examples, Note 3. There are examples too: define contrast John Shand “feeling justifiably hurt” Shand, “Taking Analysis 70, 4 (2010): 704. Sher similarly “Ðebate: offensive cause harm suffice is. start, fails all relevant instances. am harmed shake outstretched hand mildly sexist joke, yet could offended.1212 describes “a different sort thing,” explains bus cases instances 3, 14. Indeed, think others back up rightness can even pleasant: affirmation constituting What, offense? start offering three sets provoke What share, varying levels seriousness, standing: standing deem ourselves due, expect respected, recognized, expressed through interactions.1313 member community, political eligibility vote. paradigm first set, disregarded, queue jumps you, last train, spills without apologizing. Or repeatedly remember name. cases, disregards token respect consideration due. Often, virtue violating widely held norm counts respectful, polite, behavior, expected all.1414 norms communicate respect, absence, Cheshire Calhoun, Virtue Civility,” Public Affairs 29, (2000): 251–75. second set direct attacks calm lesbians!” waves banner “iron shirt,” rally female politician, burns flag, defaces bible.1515 “Iron shirts” was sign against Hillary Clinton; Diana B. Carlin Kelly Winfrey, “Have You Come Long Way, Baby? Clinton, Sarah Palin, Sexism 2008 Campaign Coverage,” Communication 60, (2009): 326–43. Some label profound offenses, flag burning and, perhaps, bible defacing. shortly discuss, acts felt personal, impersonal proposes: personal incorporate affronted nationality religion valued themselves act experienced strike oneself/one's group. Alternatively, suppose reveals embarrassing detail life dismisses another mistakes her downward direction: assumes B less takes herself have, B's situation usually entail attributed, were confounding feature. estate agent talks male companion customer, though she selling house. Rebecca Solnit's case having own book explained—“mansplained”—to her.1616 Solnit, Men Explain Things Me (Chicago: Haymarket 2014), 8–28. Epistemic injustices kind. Miranda Fricker, Injustice: Power Ethics Knowing 2007). further academics doctors aren't white and/or title isn't used, colleagues.1717 study amongst doctors, Files et al., titles used 95% introducer speaker male, 49.2% speaker. Julia A. “Speaker introductions internal medicine grand rounds: Forms address reveal gender bias,” Women's Health 26, 5 (2017): 413–19. nature made, amount indirect person's standing.1818 Microaggressions, case, paradigmatic examples. Chester Pierce coined term, instance, Pierce, “Stress Analogs Racism Sexism,” Mental Health, Sexism, eds. Charles V. Willie, Patricia Perri Rieker, Bernand M. Kramer, Bertram S. Brown (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh 1995). general relevance Emily McTernan, “Microaggressions, Equality, Social Practices,” 261–81. microaggressions “used keep racial margins place,” Lindsay Pérez Hubar Daniel G. Solorzano, “Visualizing Everyday Racism: Critical Race Theory, Visual Historical Image Mexican Banditry,” Qualitative Inquiry 21, (2015): 223. Sometimes, unintentional: party mean target individual; intend affront anyone. Where do defining properties. believes, judges, perceives been affronted, ignored, diminished, attacked offense.1919 remain neutral here competing conceptions involving beliefs, judgments perceptions, extent complex emotion. intentional object emotion: taken. individual perception reflected acknowledged ways treat interactions particular kinds, within contexts. professional context people greet me shaking hand, patting head, friends handshake unduly formal unfriendly. get greeting, us, sense behaviors others, heavily shaped socially salient belong roles. doctor expects deference patients, middle-class, police courtesy. other attachments conception say, national identity, religion, long-supported sports team, them. value effectively himself line assume during contact. Face image self-delineated approved attributes.2121 Erving Goffman, Interaction Ritual: Essays Face-to-Face Behavior (Garden City, NY: Anchor 1967), 5. idea's origins, Xiaoying Qi, “Face: Chinese Concept Global Sociology,” (2011): 279–95. Informed face, discuss two differences settled rank view. dynamic context-sensitive, static. It negotiation vary across settings: present self-image we'd convey park mothers, traits differ. Admittedly, variation constrained rules play kinds “moves” successfully uptake others.2323 emphasis sociology linguistics co-construction each encounter. Goffman's interaction. Ritual. Locher Watt's face “socially attributed interaction,” “masks” “on loan duration performance.” Miriam Richard J. Watts, “Politeness Theory Relational Work,” Politeness Research, Language, Behaviour, Culture 1, (2005): 12. constraints position referenced; Watts continue description “performs role Prime Minister, mother, wife…,” someone, occupying positions. Theory,” 13. Among these, identities tend shape interactions. difference encompasses. Our informed various aspects position, roles.2424 Standing reducible identity: concerns project construct setting, “who am.” comparative element, something need include ranking others. noted above, attachments, religious commitments, attributes. If attack, dismiss recognize aspect yourself value, threat wish yourself. result, fitting property person, regarding feel estranged party. estrangement comes degrees: alienated simply aback did, phrase gives small, temporary moment bored interaction, amused done. Repeated particularly liable amusement, egregious commonly phenomena, “mansplained” her.2525 Me. laughing explaining her, perhaps offender absurdity slights, committing unites feelings ones offender. toward actions expressing estrangement: withdrawal.2626 action tendency borrow psychology; use, Emotions,” Handbook Affective Sciences, R. Davidson, K. Scherer, H. Goldsmith 2003), 853. An motivates disposes types action. defend appropriateness involves defending appropriate, extent, follow At glance, associated look highly varied. end scale, raise eyebrow, turn away, pointedly refrain leave slightly too long silence. other, future relationships party, publicly expose them, call imposition costs, losing honorary position. withdrawing relations, pushing out. pointed silence effective, temporary, express another. always fear retaliate, strong one: reason not, default unintentionally, silent just long. unified unlike cluster states. attacked, dismissed, commits act, withdrawal. least deeply steeped thinking, familiar. partner condescending. sometimes, moment; times, break off good. accords sociolinguists psychologists concerned “face,” impoliteness disrespect others.2727 Culpepper, “Reflections impoliteness, relational Impoliteness Language: interplay power theory practice, Derek Bousfield (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2008); Francesca D'Errico Isabella Poggi, lexicon offended,” paper Symposium Emotion Modelling Detection Media Online Interaction, Liverpool, April 4–6, 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326096901_The_lexicon_of_feeling_offended; Ritual; Locher, “Situated Politeness”; work”; Amy Aisha Brown, Caroline Tagg, Philip Seargeant, Media: Conviviality Facebook Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). Finally, accommodates many classic clear fall short offense.2828 “profound” jokes failures hands. reframe vomiting meal public engaging sex acts, attend other's comfort, manifesting disregard offend. Yet primary that, nonetheless, wrongly excludes apparent things standing. idea smell senses; aesthetic sensibilities offended, hideous interior décor. perceive no So, too, necessarily anyone smells looks bad. All shared standard above desire withdraw, here, sensibilities. Thus, count proper, it—unless décor done spite inflicted deliberately, otherwise manifest you. reading, term senses truly dramatic someone's decorating attempts odd genuinely best terrible disgust. Still, insist properties present. over (despite fact confuse claiming victimhood) becoming sensitive whom affront; don't know erected institution intended outcome. reply, clearly, relation agency required. mere rains, frustrates interests staying dry: interests. sign, agents involved affairs. require intent dependency construction projection vulnerable limiting suggest. noticing presence, unintentional putdown. Hence, rule out arrangements put unknown presenting Nonetheless, good restrict agent(s) involved, constructed raises issue interaction must order confused negotiated interactions, thus threatened classically private settings, comment home, well witnesses. think, restricting still much. Suppose diary hold low me. Mightn't never view anyone? general, attitudes come these?2929 With thanks referee raising example. Clearly, suspect driven, compounded, writer's hypocrisy falsely pleasant chiefly writer. compare, knowing dislikes me, read